D-Dimer測試:血栓與出血障礙診斷管理的全方位指標

本翻譯僅作學術交流用,無商業意圖,請勿轉載,如有疑議問請來信

D-Dimer是一種敏感且快速的檢測方法,用於評估凝血激活和纖維蛋白溶解,在排除靜脈血栓栓塞症(VTE)和診斷彌散性血管內凝血(DIC)方面有很高的實用性。儘管其在孕婦和上肢DVT中的應用仍需進一步研究,但D-Dimer在血栓相關臨床狀況中的潛力不容忽視。

D-dimer assays in diagnosis and management of thrombotic and bleeding disorders

D-二聚體檢測在血栓和出血性疾病診斷與管理中的應用

Bates SM. D-dimer assays in diagnosis and management of thrombotic and bleeding disorders. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2012;38(7):673-682. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1326782

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23041982/

Abstract

D-dimer is a global indicator of coagulation activation and fibrinolysis and, therefore, an indirect marker of thrombotic activity. The utility of D-dimer measurement has been evaluated in several clinical situations including the exclusion of venous thromboembolism (VTE), prediction of future risk of VTE, and the diagnosis and monitoring of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Assay standardization remains problematic and clinicians need to be aware of variability in D-dimer assay performance and the characteristics of their institution’s test when making clinical decisions. This article will review the available evidence for the utilization of D-dimer antigen measurement in the management of thrombotic and bleeding disorders.

摘要

D-二聚體是一個反映凝血活化與纖維蛋白溶解的全球性指標,因此也是血栓活動的間接標誌。這種特定的交聯纖維蛋白降解產物是通過凝血酶、活化的第十三因子(FXIIIa)及纖維蛋白溶酶的連續作用形成的。首先,凝血活化時產生的凝血酶將纖維蛋白原轉化為纖維蛋白並活化 FXIII;其次,FXIIIa 將鄰近纖維蛋白單體中的 D-域進行共價交聯;最後,纖維蛋白溶酶在纖維蛋白表面通過纖維蛋白溶酶原活化形成,並在特定部位切割纖維蛋白,而當其切割由 FXIIIa 交聯的纖維蛋白時,便生成 D-二聚體。D-二聚體通過腎臟及網狀內皮系統清除,血漿半衰期約為 8 小時。在正常生理狀況下,低水準的 D-二聚體可在循環系統中發現,而病理性升高的 D-二聚體則可見於任何與纖維蛋白形成及纖維蛋白溶解增強相關的疾病中。D-二聚體測量的實用性已在多種臨床情況下得到評估,然而,D-二聚體檢測在排除靜脈血栓栓塞(VTE)以及彌散性血管內凝血(DIC)的診斷與監測中得到了最佳驗證。本文將回顧 D-二聚體抗原測量在血栓與出血性疾病管理中的應用證據。

D-二聚體的測量

D-二聚體在血漿中的存在可通過單株抗體檢測,這些抗體能識別存在於 FXIIIa 交聯的纖維蛋白片段 D-域中的表位,而不會識別纖維蛋白原降解產物或非交聯纖維蛋白降解產物。許多不同的 D-二聚體檢測方法已被開發並推向市場。這些檢測方法均依賴使用單株抗體來檢測 D-二聚體分子。通常,有三種技術可用於檢測 D-二聚體:(1)酶聯免疫吸附測定(ELISA),依賴抗體捕獲及標記 D-二聚體;(2)全血凝集測定(SimpliRED,西門子醫療診斷公司,特拉華州紐卡斯爾),使用具有 D-二聚體和紅細胞抗原結合位點的雙特異性抗體接合物,在全血中進行;(3)乳膠凝集測定,亦使用具有乳膠顆粒及 D-二聚體抗原特異性的雙特異性抗體。早期的乳膠凝集測定法對 D-二聚體的檢測為定性或半定量;然而,新型自動化、定量的 D-二聚體檢測(即免疫比濁測定)已在常規自動化凝血儀器上進行。需要注意的是,不同檢測方法之間的結果不可比,即使是類似格式的檢測方法也是如此。導致結果不可比的潛在原因包括以下幾點:

測量結果可以報告為 D-二聚體濃度(適用於使用純化纖維蛋白片段 D-二聚體作為校準參考曲線的檢測方法)或纖維蛋白原當量單位(FEU,若校準材料來自在 FXIIIa 存在下的純化纖維蛋白原受控纖溶酶消化所得),具體取決於用於校準該檢測方法參考曲線的材料。D-二聚體濃度可通過將結果乘以二來大致轉換為 FEU。因此,臨床醫師應了解其所在機構所使用的特定檢測方法及其性能特徵。標準化 D-二聚體檢測存在困難,目前應將每種檢測方法的結果視為特定於該方法的數據。

圖 1. D-二聚體的形成過程

在凝血過程中,會產生凝血酶。該酶從纖維蛋白原中切割纖維蛋白肽 A(FpA)和纖維蛋白肽 B(FpB)。纖維蛋白原由三對通過二硫鍵連接的多肽鏈構成,形成三個球狀結構域,由中央的 E 域和兩側的 D 域組成。產生的可溶性纖維蛋白單體聚合成不溶性纖維蛋白網絡,並進一步通過活化的第十三因子(FXIIIa)引入的共價交聯進行穩定。纖維蛋白的交聯產生了獨特的抗原決定位,其中之一是鄰近纖維蛋白單體的兩個 D 域之間的鍵。在纖維蛋白溶解反應中生成纖維蛋白溶酶,它分解纖維蛋白原和纖維蛋白;然而,它無法打破 D 域之間的共價鍵。因此,當交聯的纖維蛋白被裂解時,部分降解產物含有 D-二聚體,即由相鄰 D 域交聯形成的結構。(經 Bates SM 的允許翻譯,摘自《D-二聚體:DVT 的警示》,《加拿大診斷雜誌》,2006 年,第 23 卷,第 73-78 頁)。

D-二聚體檢測結果的解讀

D-二聚體水準在急性靜脈血栓栓塞(VTE)中通常會升高。然而,在多種炎症性及促凝狀態下也會出現升高(見表 1)。在某些類型的檢測中,類風濕因子過高、脂血症、高膽紅素血症和溶血也可能導致假陽性結果。理想的 D-二聚體檢測應該易於操作,能快速獲得結果,並且具有高診斷靈敏度和足夠高的特異性以具臨床實用性,且在臨界值附近具有良好的重現性。臨床醫師應確保所使用的檢測已在患者管理研究中得到驗證。

表 1. 與 D-二聚體水準升高相關的狀況

D-二聚體在懷疑靜脈血栓栓塞症(VTE)中的診斷價值

過去 20 年來,D-二聚體檢測已被用於評估懷疑的深靜脈血栓(DVT)及隨後懷疑的肺栓塞(PE),其診斷流程也隨時間不斷完善。急性 VTE 患者的 D-二聚體水準通常會升高。然而,由於 D-二聚體水準也可能在多種非血栓性疾病中升高,因此 D-二聚體是一個靈敏但非特異性的靜脈血栓標誌物。因此,雖然陽性結果對確認 DVT 或 PE 的診斷幫助不大,但陰性結果可以幫助排除這些狀況,並減少進一步昂貴且侵入性放射學檢查的需求。在住院患者及其他常見於表 1 所列病症的急性患者中,由於假陽性結果頻率高,D-二聚體檢測的實用性較低。大多數驗證 D-二聚體檢測在懷疑 VTE 中使用的數據來自門診或急診部患者的評估。在懷疑 VTE 但診斷檢測可能會延遲的情況下,通常會在確診或排除前先經驗性地給予肝素或低分子量肝素治療。研究顯示,經肝素抗凝治療後,D-二聚體水準會下降,增加假陰性結果的可能性。雖然短期肝素療法的影響及 D-二聚體水準下降的時間仍存在爭議,但有評論建議,在治療後 24 小時內可見到 D-二聚體水準的臨床顯著下降。因此,若有可能,應在肝素療法開始前抽血進行 D-二聚體檢測。

儘管每種 D-二聚體檢測方法都有其自身的性能特徵,但臨床上有用的 D-二聚體檢測方法可大致分為兩類——靈敏度非常高但特異性較低的檢測,以及靈敏度適中但特異性較高的檢測。在一項涵蓋超過 300 項研究的綜合分析中,酶聯免疫吸附測定(ELISA)、酶聯熒光測定(ELFA)及定量乳膠或免疫比濁測定對 VTE 的靈敏度(>90%)高於其他檢測類型。基於這些數據,ELISA 和 ELFA 與乳膠免疫比濁測定通常被稱為“高靈敏度”檢測,而全血 D-二聚體檢測則被認為是“中等靈敏度”檢測。與靈敏度較低的檢測相比,靈敏度較高的檢測顯示出較低的 VTE 特異性。為安全排除 VTE,當單獨或與其他檢測一起使用時,陰性 D-二聚體檢測結果應在臨床隨訪中顯示與標準參考檢測(如 DVT 的靜脈造影陰性及 PE 的肺動脈造影陰性或正常通氣-灌注肺掃描)相當的失敗率(即失敗率不超過 2%;陰性預測值至少為 98%)。

多項研究探討了單獨或結合非侵入性檢測或臨床預測概率評估來管理懷疑下肢 DVT 或 PE 患者的 D-二聚體檢測。基於這些研究結果,近期指南建議在評估 DVT 患者時,對於低預測概率(無論使用中等或高靈敏度 D-二聚體檢測)或中等預測概率(僅使用高靈敏度 D-二聚體檢測)的患者,應首先進行 D-二聚體檢測。如果 D-二聚體檢測結果為陰性(低於臨界值),則可排除 DVT,無需進一步檢測。然而,對於陽性 D-二聚體結果,應進行受影響肢體的靜脈超音波檢查。尚無大型管理研究證實僅依據高預測概率患者的 D-二聚體陰性結果排除 DVT 的安全性,因此建議首先進行靜脈超音波檢查。然而,使用高靈敏度 D-二聚體檢測的陰性結果可以減少該患者群體中進行序列超音波檢查的需求。如果未進行初步預測概率評估,建議首先進行靜脈超音波檢查。同樣,陰性 D-二聚體結果(在此情況下使用中等或高靈敏度檢測)可消除進行序列超音波檢查的必要性。

類似策略可應用於懷疑 PE 的患者。對於低預測概率患者,陰性中等靈敏度 D-二聚體檢測可排除 PE,而對於非高預測概率患者,陰性高靈敏度 D-二聚體檢測亦可排除 PE。

表 2. D-二聚體檢測差異的原因
表 3. 懷疑靜脈血栓栓塞症時 D-二聚體檢測方法的準確性指標

懷孕期間疑似靜脈血栓栓塞的D-Dimer檢測

雖然D-Dimer檢測在排除非孕人口急性靜脈血栓栓塞(VTE)中扮演越來越重要的角色,但其在孕婦中的應用尚未經過嚴格評估。D-Dimer水平隨著孕齡增加及妊娠併發症的發生而升高。這降低了檢測對VTE的特異性,至妊娠第三期時,若使用與非孕婦相同的高度敏感檢測方法和相同的臨界值,只有少數健康孕婦會呈現D-Dimer陰性結果。有一項針對疑似深靜脈血栓(DVT)孕婦的全血D-Dimer檢測準確性研究報告,其敏感性為100%(95%信賴區間,77%至100%),特異性為60%(95%信賴區間,62%至68%)。第三期妊娠患者中,僅有51%出現假陽性結果,這表明該檢測值得進一步研究。然而,這種檢測在孕婦中的效用尚未在前瞻性管理研究中得到評估。通過使用更高的D-Dimer臨界值,或許能在不犧牲敏感性的情況下,提高高度敏感D-Dimer檢測對妊娠相關DVT的特異性;然而,這需要在前瞻性管理研究中得到驗證。因此,不建議將D-Dimer檢測作為疑似DVT或肺栓塞(PE)孕婦的首選檢查方法。

老年人疑似靜脈血栓栓塞的D-Dimer檢測

D-Dimer檢測在老年人中更容易出現陽性結果,這限制了該檢測在此類患者中的實用性。然而,若結合低或不太可能的預測概率與陰性D-Dimer結果,仍能安全地排除部分老年患者的深靜脈血栓(DVT)。對於年齡超過50歲的患者,建議使用一個依年齡調整的D-Dimer臨界值,該值是通過將患者年齡乘以10來計算(例如,對於65歲的患者,其D-Dimer臨界值將是650 μg FEU/L,而不是傳統的500 μg FEU/L)。在回溯性分析中,這個年齡特異性的臨界值顯著提高了可安全排除肺栓塞(PE)和深靜脈血栓(DVT)的老年患者比例。然而,在這一策略被接受為臨床常規前,仍需在診斷管理研究中進行前瞻性驗證並隨訪患者。

癌症患者疑似靜脈血栓栓塞的D-Dimer檢測

在癌症患者中,D-Dimer檢測的效用可能受到該群體中VTE高發率及較高的基線D-Dimer水平的影響。儘管有些研究顯示D-Dimer檢測在腫瘤科患者中的陰性預測值較低,但也有其他研究指出,這些檢測在排除癌症患者VTE方面的能力與無惡性腫瘤的患者相當。一項合併了三個前瞻性D-Dimer診斷研究數據庫的分析,評估了共計2,696名疑似DVT的門診患者,其中包括200名癌症患者(其中83人或41.5%確認患有DVT),結果發現,在癌症患者中,陰性D-Dimer結果結合低或不太可能的預測概率得出的陰性預測值分別為100%(95%信賴區間,69.8%至100%)和100%(95%信賴區間,82.8%至96.6%)。儘管這種結果組合在疑似DVT的腫瘤科患者中與無癌症患者同樣安全,但在癌症患者中相對少見(發生率低於15%),這限制了此策略在該群體中的臨床實用性。因此,一般而言,癌症患者若疑似VTE,應接受診斷性影像檢查,而非D-Dimer檢測。

使用D-Dimer預測靜脈血栓栓塞

D-Dimer已在臨床環境中被評估,用於預測深靜脈血栓(DVT)和肺栓塞(PE)的發生。本節將簡要回顧D-Dimer在有無明顯誘因的VTE病史患者中,用於決定抗凝治療的持續時間,以及在癌症患者中評估是否需要進行初級預防的應用。

抗凝治療期間的D-Dimer檢測

對於初次發生深靜脈血栓(DVT)或肺栓塞(PE)的患者,長期隨訪顯示,靜脈血栓栓塞(VTE)是一種慢性疾病,需終生預防策略。當停止抗凝治療時,復發風險會持續存在,且在急性事件後的初期最高,隨時間逐漸下降。有多項研究探討了停止抗凝治療後的復發風險,結果顯示,這一風險主要取決於急性事件是否得到有效治療,以及患者發生新VTE事件的內在風險(個體復發風險)。在初次事件發生時,是否存在可逆的誘發因素以及是否患有活動性癌症,是影響停止抗凝治療後復發風險的重要因素之一。如果誘發因素是近期手術,停止抗凝治療後的復發風險較低,與非手術性誘發因素(如長途飛行、妊娠或雌激素治療)相比,1年後的風險為1%對5%,5年後為3%對15%。對於無明顯誘因的靜脈血栓栓塞事件,患者在停止抗凝治療後的復發風險為10%(1年)和30%(5年),在患有活動性癌症的患者中,復發風險可能更高(每年達15%)。

唯一能預防VTE復發的方法是繼續進行抗凝治療。雖然持續抗凝治療在降低復發風險方面非常有效,但也伴隨著重大出血的風險。因此,VTE治療後的抗凝治療持續時間應根據個人情況決定,並需權衡停止抗凝治療後的復發風險與持續抗凝治療引起的出血風險。一般來說,VTE的抗凝治療會持續到其益處(降低復發)不再明顯超過其風險(增加出血),或是患者希望停止治療,即使持續治療預計能帶來淨效益。最新的循證臨床指引強烈建議對於有可逆誘發因素的VTE患者和高出血風險的無誘因VTE患者,抗凝治療應持續3個月。對於無誘因VTE且無高出血風險的患者,則建議延長抗凝治療。然而,如果能確定其中有一部分患者的復發風險較低,那麼他們可能不需要長期暴露於潛在致命且不便的治療中,這將是很有幫助的。

有研究提出,抗凝治療停止後凝血系統活化的實驗室證據可能與VTE復發風險相關。最近的一些前瞻性研究評估了D-Dimer測試,試圖確定該測試是否能幫助醫生更好地判斷哪些患者在經過一段時間的治療後,可安全停止抗凝治療。兩項系統性回顧檢視了在無誘因VTE患者停止抗凝治療後進行D-Dimer測量的應用,報告顯示,與D-Dimer陰性患者相比,D-Dimer陽性患者的復發風險大約增加了一倍。

在這些綜合分析中,只有一項研究使用D-Dimer測量來管理患者。PROLONG研究是一項包含708名首次無誘因靜脈血栓栓塞事件的多中心試驗,這些患者接受了至少3個月的口服抗凝治療。在停止抗凝治療後約1個月,使用定性D-Dimer測試(Simplify D-Dimer 測試;義大利米蘭儀器實驗室)進行檢測。D-Dimer陰性者未恢復抗凝治療,而D-Dimer陽性者則隨機分配恢復華法林治療或保持停止治療。所有患者均進行了VTE復發的隨訪,疑似事件由獨立中央委員會進行盲評。結果顯示,D-Dimer異常且未恢復抗凝治療的患者,其復發風險高於D-Dimer陰性患者(風險比為2.27;95%信賴區間,1.15至4.46)和D-Dimer陽性且恢復華法林治療的患者(風險比為4.26;95%信賴區間,1.23至14.6)。延長隨訪顯示,D-Dimer陰性患者的年復發風險為5%。不同D-Dimer測試的性能差異表明,這些結果的有效性應該在每種測試中得到確認,理想情況下是在前瞻性管理研究中進行驗證。此外,D-Dimer陰性患者的年復發風險(5%對比2%,D-Dimer陽性但繼續服用華法林的患者)是否足夠低,以說服患者(及醫生)停止抗凝治療,這一點尚不明確。

組合因素可能比單一因素更能預測復發風險。此前的研究顯示,男性性別與更高的復發風險相關,而女性(尤其是與荷爾蒙治療相關的血栓)被認為風險較低。在一項事後分析中,PROLONG研究者探討了是否可以利用年齡和性別進一步對抗凝治療後1個月D-Dimer陰性患者的復發風險進行分層。根據長期隨訪數據,研究者確定,在D-Dimer陰性且年齡低於65歲的患者中,女性的年復發風險較低(每人年僅0.4%)。然而,值得注意的是,這項研究納入了荷爾蒙誘發VTE的女性,這可能引入了一個復發風險極低的受試者群體。

其他研究者則試圖將D-Dimer與臨床風險因素相結合。Rodger等人前瞻性隨訪了600名首次無誘因靜脈血栓栓塞事件的患者,在停止抗凝治療後平均隨訪了18個月。研究者使用了69個在停用華法林前記錄的潛在復發預測因素,試圖確定一個規則,以識別年復發風險低於3%的患者。結果顯示,男性患者無法找到符合該標準的預測組合;但對於女性來說,若其具有一個或更少的以下風險因素:腿部色素沉著過度、水腫、紅腫;VIDAS D-Dimer水平在服用華法林期間達到或超過250 μg FEU/L;體重指數至少30 kg/m²或年齡達到或超過65歲,則其年復發風險為1.6%(95%信賴區間,0.3%至4.6%)。另一項基於1,818名首次無誘因VTE患者的數據進行的個體患者資料的綜合分析顯示,這些患者接受了常規抗凝治療並在治療停止後隨訪至5年,該分析用於開發另一個臨床預測規則。該數據庫中的主要復發預測因素為:停止抗凝治療後D-Dimer異常、年齡小於50歲、男性性別以及非荷爾蒙治療相關的VTE(在女性中)(DASH,即D-Dimer、年齡、性別、荷爾蒙治療)。對於得分為1或以下的患者,年復發風險為3.1%(95%信賴區間,2.3%至3.9%)。雖然這兩個預測規則可能在決定抗凝治療是否應該無限期延長或在初期治療至少3個月後停止方面有所幫助,但需要在獨立人群中進行前瞻性驗證。

表 4 無誘因靜脈血栓栓塞患者停用抗凝劑後1個月D-Dimer水平與靜脈血栓栓塞復發風險的關係
圖 2 D-Dimer 檢測格式

所有檢測格式都使用能識別D-Dimer片段特定表位的單株抗體。全血凝集試驗使用雙特異性抗體偶聯物,該偶聯物具有D-Dimer和紅細胞膜抗原的結合位點。當D-Dimer水平升高時,患者的紅細胞會出現可見的凝集。酶聯免疫吸附測試(ELISA)是“夾心”檢測,依賴於兩種抗體的使用——“捕捉”抗體和“標記”抗體。在乳膠凝集試驗中,特異性識別D-Dimer的單株抗體被塗佈在乳膠顆粒上,並通過顆粒凝集來檢測D-Dimer。(經Bates SM允許翻版。D-Dimer:DVT的警示。加拿大診斷雜誌。2006年;23:73–78)。

抗凝治療期間的D-Dimer檢測

儘管癌症與血栓風險增加的關聯性已被充分記錄,臨床研究尚未一致顯示血栓預防的益處,這可能是因為整體VTE事件發生率較低。因此,識別適合進行血栓預防的門診癌症患者亞群體非常重要,因為在這些群體中,VTE的風險及預防血栓的益處(改善發病率、降低死亡率、更穩定的癌症治療、更高的生活質量及減少醫療資源使用)能夠平衡預防所帶來的風險、成本及不便。

在一項針對821名活動性癌症患者的前瞻性觀察隊列研究中,D-Dimer水平升高(使用STA LIA test DDi,Diagnostica Stago,Asnieres,France,研究群體的第75百分位[1,440 μg FEU/L])無論是單獨存在(風險比1.8;95%信賴區間,1.0至3.2)還是與F1+2升高(風險比3.6;95%信賴區間,1.4至9.5)結合,都與VTE風險增加相關。6個月後,D-Dimer和F1+2均升高的患者發生VTE的累積概率為15.2%,而僅D-Dimer升高者則為5.0%。

將D-Dimer(及可溶性P-選擇素)加入之前已驗證的風險評分系統中,該系統已考慮了癌症部位、化療前血小板計數、血紅素水平及/或促紅細胞生成劑的使用、白細胞計數及體重指數,這提高了VTE風險的預測能力。使用原始評分系統,最高風險患者的血栓栓塞風險為9.6%,但在擴展模型下增加至35.0%,而最低風險組則分別為1.5%(原始模型)和1.0%(擴展模型)。然而,這些模型的益處(即基於模型結果進行預防措施的有效性和安全性)仍需在干預性臨床試驗中得到證明。

D-Dimer在彌散性血管內凝血診斷與監測中的應用

彌散性血管內凝血(DIC)是一種綜合症,其特徵是凝血系統普遍失控的活化,伴隨過量凝血酶生成,纖溶系統活化產生過量的纖溶酶,以及消耗性凝血障礙。常見與DIC相關的病症列於表5。DIC的臨床表現可能從出血到血栓,取決於該綜合症的病因及階段。

目前沒有單一檢測能夠確定或排除DIC的診斷。儘管正常的D-Dimer水平可以可靠地排除DIC,但其升高並不一定反映此病症的存在。多種評分系統已被開發,這些系統結合了血小板計數、纖維蛋白相關標誌物、纖維蛋白原水平及凝血酶原時間等測量指標。國際血栓與止血學會(ISTH)科學分委會及韓國血栓與止血學會建議的評分系統中包含了D-Dimer水平的測量,但日本厚生省及日本急救醫學會的評分系統中則未納入這一指標,而是選擇了纖維蛋白相關標誌物(如纖維蛋白原降解產物)的測量。這些評分系統不僅可以用於DIC的診斷,還可以用來監測其進展或消退。

表 5 與彌散性血管內凝血(DIC)相關的病症

結論

D-Dimer是一種快速、易於獲得且可靠的全球性凝血活化和纖溶以及血栓活動指標。其在排除下肢深靜脈血栓(DVT)和肺栓塞(PE)以及診斷彌散性血管內凝血(DIC)方面已被充分驗證。然而,在懷孕婦女疑似VTE和疑似上肢DVT的患者中,D-Dimer作為首選檢測方法之前,仍需進行更多研究。將D-Dimer與臨床因素結合使用,有望幫助判斷具有無誘因VTE病史的患者是否需要無限期抗凝治療,並確定哪些高風險患者可從初級血栓預防中受益。該檢測在其他多種臨床情境中也具有潛在應用價值。然而,臨床醫生在做出決策時,需注意D-Dimer檢測表現的變異性及所在機構檢測方法的特點。標準化D-Dimer檢測將使其應用更為有效。

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